One the most widely accepted goals of conservation is ecosystem representation (i.e., the conservation of a representative set of high quality natural communities or ecosystems within a network of protected areas; Christensen et al. 1996). Ecosystem representation seeks to protect a broad diversity of habitats and ecological processes on which species depend; protecting this ecosystem diversity may be the most effective way to preserve biological diversity, including both rare and common species (Margules et al. 1988, Noss and Scott 1997, Groves and Valutis 1999). A hierarchical structure of representation should be considered for identification of protected areas or 'reserves,' from large functional landscapes at a coarse scale (to capture ecological processes and deflect larger-scale threats), through genetic variation in wildlife at the finest scale (Noss 1987, Noss 1990a, Groves and Valutis 1999, Margules and Pressey 2000, Poiani et al. 2000).

A reserve does not infer the absence of management or the maintenance of an unchanging system. In fact, to maintain representation of wildlife and vegetation diversity, management is imperative (Noss and Scott 1997) and change is inevitable, given that the ecological processes that are the subject of protection will ultimately cause change (Botkin 1990). Representing the full spectrum of species assemblages created by these processes and changes should be an ultimate goal of a reserve network.

Many agencies and organizations in Michigan have programs with goals of identifying and protecting areas that include important landscapes, features or species.

State Initiatives
The mission of the Natural Areas Program is "to identify, establish, maintain, and administer a system of high quality, representative, ecologically viable natural areas in Michigan" (Eagle and Herman 2000). The program has at its core a process to identify and legally protect (dedicate) natural areas on public and private lands. A broad spectrum of values is considered, but emphasis is on retained or restored natural characteristics. Currently, 26 natural areas are legally protected and an additional 52 are recognized through other programs, agreements, or inclusion in management plans. Approximately 130,000 acres of State land are currently recognized through the Natural Areas Program.

The Natural Rivers Program was developed to preserve, protect and enhance Michigan's finest river systems. Currently 2,091 miles of rivers and streams are protected. This program protects river corridors by using setbacks and restrictions for construction and management within a specified distance of the river.

The Biodiversity Conservation Planning Process has been proposed as a process to identify planning objectives and to develop plans to meet those objectives. Initially, the process will be used to identify areas on public and private lands with high quality natural communities, but will be expanded to also address various other high conservation value areas, considering both ecological and social values.

Federal Programs
The USFS's Research Natural Areas program recognizes high quality examples of various vegetative systems on Forest Service lands. In Michigan, these consist of five legally designated areas encompassing approximately 5,000 acres. Most areas are small and do not fully represent the wildlife diversity of USFS lands (Noss 1990b). The larger Inventoried Roadless Areas program has reviewed and identified approximately 230,000 acres of relatively intact and unfragmented landscape patches in Michigan.

Two of the three major National Parks in Michigan (Sleeping Bear Dunes and Pictured Rocks) contain roughly 130,000 acres of land. The third park, Isle Royale, located in Lake Superior, consists of approximately 85 square miles. Although some portions of these parks have been developed for visitor interpretation and recreational use, the majority of each park is left undisturbed by human activities. Park Service land-management strategies include protection and restoration of natural features and wildlife species.

Federal Wilderness Areas are areas of undeveloped Federal land that have retained their primeval character and influence without permanent improvements or human habitation and are protected and managed to preserve their natural conditions. The 13 Federal Wilderness Areas in Michigan encompass approximately 92,000 acres, which include Nordhouse Dunes, Horseshoe Bay, Sturgeon River Gorge and Seney National Wildlife Refuge.

Wild and Scenic Rivers are selected rivers that, with their immediate environments, possess outstanding remarkable scenic, recreational, geologic, fish and wildlife, historic or cultural. They are preserved in a free-flowing condition to maintain those values. Sixteen stretches of water extending nearly 625 miles, including sections of the Pere Marquette, Au Sable, Tahquamenon and Presque Isle rivers, have been designated under this program in Michigan.

Non-governmental Initiatives
Non-governmental initiatives also contribute substantially to high quality land protection. Michigan Nature Association, Michigan Audubon Society and other organizations manage reserves throughout the State. The Nature Conservancy has established a number of reserves to protect rare systems in Michigan. The TNC reserves contain more than 13,000 acres and range from rare fen communities in southern Michigan to alvar sites in the Upper Peninsula. In addition, the DNR and TNC have entered into 27 cooperative agreements to protect rare species and systems through the TNC Natural Areas Registry Program. Numerous local and regional land conservancies have been established in Michigan and are working to protect important sites.

Beyond the Reserve
Although none of these programs alone will achieve the goal of protecting all representative landscapes, they collectively represent a core acreage scattered across the State that can be used to build larger-scale conservation efforts. Existing reserves tend to be small; in Michigan, these protected areas currently represent less than 1.5% of the state (Donovan et al. 2004) and this acreage is not likely to grow significantly. Therefore, to retain natural structure and function, the largest scales of representation must be captured as much as possible within a core protected area and then receive protection across the entire landscape through coordinated planning and conservation activities. For example, protection of a stretch of representative cold-water stream must address the ecological processes and water sources that maintain the lower temperature or it will fail to protect the system's diversity over the long term.

Donovan et al. (2004) found that only 3% of 214 bird species had at least 10% of their predicted distribution within identified reserves in Michigan. However, when other, primarily public, lands currently managed for natural resource values were included, the percentage of birds with at least 10% of their predicted distribution within the defined areas increased to 81% of species. These differences were similar for mammals (0% to 84%), amphibians (0 to 73%) and reptiles (0 to 60%). If even a small portion of the remaining, primarily private, lands were managed for similar values, the result would be a significant step toward full ecosystem representation in Michigan. Cooperative efforts with private landowners will be a critical and effective means of protecting wildlife and ecological processes (Western and Wright 1994, Miller and Hobbs 2002).

The Nature Conservancy has made a step in this direction with its Ecoregional Conservation Planning efforts throughout North America (Groves et al. 2000). Large landscapes that possess and maintain important ecological communities or functions (e.g., a river watershed, a forest complex) are identified as priority areas. These areas generally reflect a variety of land ownership, leading TNC to develop partnerships with local communities in many areas. In Michigan, the identification of priority areas by TNC has been completed (TNC 2000, TNC and Nature Conservancy of Canada 2002, TNC 2003), and the formation of partnerships continues.

Conservation Needs to Address Ecosystem Representation and Network Issues:

Land & Water Protection

• Establish a cooperative system of protections, designations, or management that captures the full variety of landscape features and associated wildlife
  
  
• Identify, include and protect identified additional important lands in representative networks

Land, Water & Species Management

• Develop management plans for landscapes, regardless of ownership type, that include a network of protected sites and reflect landscape-scale ecological processes and management needs
  
  
• Identify and prioritize opportunities for restoration and conservation
  
  
• Develop management actions to preserve important ecological characteristics or processes for sites and landscapes

Education & Awareness

• Develop and implement an information and education program to provide interpretive materials for protected areas, their ecological processes, associated wildlife, and the interactions between them

Capacity Building

• Provide technical and financial assistance to private landowners to ensure ecosystem representation across all lands

Research, Surveys & Monitoring

• Conduct an inventory of the location, condition and extent of natural landscape features
  
  
• Identify important ecological characteristics or processes for sites and landscapes
  
  
• Complete an analysis of biodiversity elements (e.g., wildlife, plants, habitats) to identify areas of high biodiversity, regardless of ownership type
  
  
• Use GAP and other analyses to identify additional lands for inclusion in representative networks